Where the evidence stands

Animal studies

Binds the CB2 receptor directly, a terpene that acts as a cannabinoid

A selective CB2 agonist (Ki 155 nM). Oral dosing reduced inflammation in normal mice but not in mice lacking the CB2 receptor, which is what ties the effect to that pathway.Gertsch J, Leonti M, Raduner S, et al. (2008). Beta-caryophyllene is a dietary cannabinoid. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 105(26):9099–9104. PubMed 18574142

Human trial

Blunted the anxious edge of a high-THC dose

Vaporized alongside 30 mg THC, limonene significantly lowered anxious and paranoid ratings without dulling the other effects. Worth knowing: the significant result came at the highest limonene dose in a 12-person subset. Lower doses only trended.Spindle TR, Zamarripa CA, Russo E, et al. (2024). Vaporized D-limonene selectively mitigates the acute anxiogenic effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol in healthy adults who intermittently use cannabis. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 258:111267. PubMed 38498958

Human study

Efficiently absorbed through the lungs

About 60% pulmonary uptake, with a long half-life in fatty tissue. The same study found no acute change in lung function, and a dose-related irritation signal in five subjects.Falk AA, Hagberg MT, Löf AE, et al. (1990). Uptake, distribution and elimination of alpha-pinene in man after exposure by inhalation. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 16(5):372–378. PubMed 2255878

Animal studies

Anti-inflammatory activity

Reduced inflammatory and oxidative markers in a rat arthritis model. Note the site: this is systemic inflammation in joints, not an airway effect.Ali K, Iqral, Sharif A, et al. (2026). α-Pinene alleviates inflammatory responses and oxidative stress in Freund's complete adjuvant induced arthritic rat model and associated risk factors of atherosclerosis. Inflammopharmacology, 34(5):3293–3312. PubMed 41888386

Cell studies

Antifungal activity in the lab

Tested α-pinene as an isolated compound, not just as part of a whole oil. Active against dermatophytes and Cryptococcus.Cavaleiro C, Salgueiro L, Gonçalves MJ, et al. (2015). Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Angelica major against Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus and dermatophyte species. Journal of Natural Medicines, 69(2). PubMed 25576097

Cell studies

Inhibits acetylcholinesterase in the lab

Both mirror-image forms of α-pinene were potent inhibitors of the enzyme that clears acetylcholine, the signal tied to attention and memory. This is the real mechanism behind pinene's clear-headed reputation, and it is measured in an enzyme assay, not in a person. When that idea was finally tested in people (see above), the memory benefit did not appear. A mechanism that does not translate is one of the most common stories in pharmacology.Miyazawa M, Yamafuji C. (2005). Inhibition of acetylcholinesterase activity by bicyclic monoterpenoids. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53(5):1765–1768. PubMed 15740071

Pooled human trials

Most effective herbal treatment for acute post-viral rhinosinusitis

Pooling 47 randomised trials across 18 herbal treatments, cineole came out among the most effective for controlling acute post-viral rhinosinusitis symptoms, at GRADE moderate certainty. Pooled evidence like this outranks any single trial.Hoang MP, Seresirikachorn K, Chitsuthipakorn W, et al. (2023). Herbal Medicines for Rhinosinusitis: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-analysis. Current Allergy and Asthma Reports, 23(2):93–109. PubMed 36609950

Human trial

Eased airway inflammation in asthma

Over 12 weeks, patients on cineole were able to cut their daily steroid dose by 36%, against 7% on placebo.Juergens UR, Dethlefsen U, Steinkamp G, et al. (2003). Anti-inflammatory activity of 1.8-cineol (eucalyptol) in bronchial asthma: a double-blind placebo-controlled trial. Respiratory Medicine, 97(3). PubMed 12645832

Human trial

Improved lung function and symptoms in asthma

In 247 patients over 6 months, significant improvement in lung function, asthma symptoms and quality of life.Worth H, Dethlefsen U. (2012). Patients with asthma benefit from concomitant therapy with cineole: a placebo-controlled, double-blind trial. Journal of Asthma, 49(8). PubMed 22978309

Human trial

Reduced flare-ups in COPD

In 242 patients over 6 months, flare-ups were less frequent, less severe and shorter.Worth H, Schacher C, Dethlefsen U. (2009). Concomitant therapy with Cineole (Eucalyptole) reduces exacerbations in COPD: a placebo-controlled double-blind trial. Respiratory Research, 10:69. PubMed 19624838

Human study

Changed cortisol response under stress

In 24 people, inhaled linalool modulated salivary cortisol and produced relaxing effects. Honest limits: the study does not report which direction or by how much, and linalool's two mirror-image forms behaved differently: one was actually activating for heart rate and blood pressure.Höferl M, Krist S, Buchbauer G. (2006). Chirality influences the effects of linalool on physiological parameters of stress. Planta Medica, 72(13). PubMed 16983600

Animal studies

Calming effect through the brain's GABA system

Calming without clumsiness. Two details make this unusually clean: the effect disappeared in mice that could not smell, and it was blocked by a drug that blocks GABA-A receptors. So the calm is triggered through smell, rather than linalool acting on the brain as a drug.Harada H, Kashiwadani H, Kanmura Y, et al. (2018). Linalool Odor-Induced Anxiolytic Effects in Mice. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience, 12:241. PubMed 30405369

Animal studies

Sedative and muscle-relaxant effects

Mice moved, reared and groomed less, showed muscle relaxation on the rotating-rod test, and slept about 2.6 times longer under a sedative. This is the body-heaviness people describe, showing up independently of any cannabinoid.do Vale TG, Furtado EC, Santos JG Jr, et al. (2002). Central effects of citral, myrcene and limonene, constituents of essential oil chemotypes from Lippia alba. Phytomedicine, 9(8):709–714. PubMed 12587690

Animal studies

Anti-inflammatory activity

Reduced several inflammatory signals in the airways of mice. Notably humulene worked here where caryophyllene did not, which is a reminder that closely related terpenes are not interchangeable.Rogerio AP, Andrade EL, Leite DF, et al. (2009). Preventive and therapeutic anti-inflammatory properties of the sesquiterpene alpha-humulene in experimental airways allergic inflammation. British Journal of Pharmacology, 158(4). PubMed 19438512

Animal studies

Lowers COX-2 and iNOS expression

Oral humulene reduced swelling, TNF-alpha and IL-1beta, and lowered the EXPRESSION of COX-2 and iNOS in rats. Worth being precise here: reducing how much of an enzyme the body builds is not the same as blocking the enzyme itself, which is how aspirin and ibuprofen work. Different route to a similar place. In these models the effect was comparable to dexamethasone.Fernandes ES, Passos GF, Medeiros R, et al. (2007). Anti-inflammatory effects of compounds alpha-humulene and (-)-trans-caryophyllene isolated from the essential oil of Cordia verbenacea. European Journal of Pharmacology, 569(3):228–236. PubMed 17559833

Animal studies

Sedative effect when inhaled

Sedation in mice. Using mice with an impaired sense of smell, the researchers showed it works after being absorbed through the nose into the body, not merely by smelling it.Ito K, Ito M. (2013). The sedative effect of inhaled terpinolene in mice and its structure-activity relationships. Journal of Natural Medicines, 67(4). PubMed 23339024

Animal studies

Eased skin inflammation

Lowered inflammatory signals in immune cells and reduced swelling and tissue damage when applied to mouse skin.Maurya AK, Singh M, Dubey V, et al. (2014). α-(-)-bisabolol reduces pro-inflammatory cytokine production and ameliorates skin inflammation. Current Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, 15(2). PubMed 24894548

Animal studies

Calmed inflammation in the gut

In a mouse model of colitis, reduced disease activity and several inflammatory markers. Preclinical only. This has not been studied in people.Venkataraman B, Almarzooqi S, Raj V, et al. (2022). α-Bisabolol Mitigates Colon Inflammation by Stimulating Colon PPAR-γ Transcription Factor. PPAR Research, 2022:5498115. PubMed 35465355

Animal studies

Lowered cholesterol and triglycerides

Large reductions in cholesterol and triglycerides in rats, by a route different from how statins work. Dose caveat that matters: the amount given was far above anything a person encounters from food or a terpene percentage.Vallianou I, Peroulis N, Pantazis P, et al. (2011). Camphene, a plant-derived monoterpene, reduces plasma cholesterol and triglycerides in hyperlipidemic rats independently of HMG-CoA reductase activity. PLoS ONE, 6(11):e20516. PubMed 22073134

Cell studies

Antioxidant activity

Raised the cells' own antioxidant defenses and reduced oxidative damage.Tiwari M, Kakkar P. (2009). Plant derived antioxidants — Geraniol and camphene protect rat alveolar macrophages against t-BHP induced oxidative stress. Toxicology in Vitro, 23(2). PubMed 19135518

Animal studies

Anti-inflammatory and pain-dampening activity

Reduced pain sensitivity and inflammatory cell migration in mice. The pain effect was blocked by opioid-blocking drugs, meaning it runs through the opioid system, an interesting and specific mechanism, and a reason not to assume it behaves like the other terpenes.de Santana MF, Guimarães AG, Chaves DO, et al. (2015). The anti-hyperalgesic and anti-inflammatory profiles of p-cymene: Evidence for the involvement of opioid system and cytokines. Pharmaceutical Biology, 53(11). PubMed 25856703

Cell studies

Inhibits TRPA1, a receptor involved in pain signaling

Fenchol was among the more potent monoterpenes tested, inhibiting TRPA1 more than camphor or eucalyptol did. Two honest limits: borneol and 2-methylisoborneol also outperformed those two, so fenchol is not uniquely strong; and this is a cell assay, not pain relief measured in an animal or a person.Takaishi M, Uchida K, Fujita F, et al. (2014). Inhibitory effects of monoterpenes on human TRPA1 and the structural basis of their activity. Journal of Physiological Sciences, 64(1). PubMed 24122170

Animal studies

Protected against a specific induced brain injury

Protected memory and brain tissue in rats against a specific chemical insult. Important scope limit: this is protection from one induced toxin, not evidence that geraniol improves memory generally.Farokhcheh M, Hejazian L, Akbarnejad Z, et al. (2021). Geraniol improved memory impairment and neurotoxicity induced by zinc oxide nanoparticles in male wistar rats through its antioxidant effect. Life Sciences, 281:119823. PubMed 34273375

Cell studies

Antioxidant activity

Substantially raised the cells' antioxidant defenses and cut damaging signals.Tiwari M, Kakkar P. (2009). Plant derived antioxidants — Geraniol and camphene protect rat alveolar macrophages against t-BHP induced oxidative stress. Toxicology in Vitro, 23(2). PubMed 19135518

Animal studies

Anti-inflammatory activity

Reduced swelling and several inflammatory signals in a rat arthritis model.Laraib I, Qasim S, Uttra AM, et al. (2025). Ocimene mitigates pyroptosis through TLR4/NLRP3-mediated mechanisms in CFA-induced inflammation. Inflammopharmacology. PubMed 40266533

Cell studies

Antifungal activity in the lab

Tested cis-β-ocimene as an isolated compound rather than as part of a whole oil, which is what makes it usable evidence about ocimene itself.Cavaleiro C, Salgueiro L, Gonçalves MJ, et al. (2015). Antifungal activity of the essential oil of Angelica major against Candida, Cryptococcus, Aspergillus and dermatophyte species. Journal of Natural Medicines, 69(2). PubMed 25576097

Cell studies

Anti-parasitic activity in cell culture

Isolated guaiol killed a parasite in cell culture without harming the host cells, and modestly reduced one inflammatory signal. This is the one study we found that tests guaiol itself rather than an oil containing it.Garcia MCF, Soares DC, Santana RC, et al. (2018). The in vitro antileishmanial activity of essential oil from Aloysia gratissima and guaiol, its major sesquiterpene against Leishmania amazonensis. Parasitology, 145(9). PubMed 29352826

Human trial

Reduces seizures in Dravet syndrome (prescription, purified)

Adjunctive purified CBD (20 mg/kg/day) cut convulsive-seizure frequency roughly in half vs placebo. This is prescription Epidiolex in a rare epilepsy, not a dispensary product or an OTC oil.Devinsky O, Cross JH, Laux L, et al. (2017). Trial of Cannabidiol for Drug-Resistant Seizures in the Dravet Syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 376:2011–2020. PubMed 28538134

Human trial

Acutely reduced anxiety before a public-speaking stressor

A single 600 mg dose lowered anxiety during a simulated speech. Small (n=24), single-dose, acute: a real signal, not evidence CBD treats an anxiety disorder over time. Later work found an inverted-U dose curve (≈300 mg helped, 900 mg did not).Bergamaschi MM, Queiroz RH, Chagas MH, et al. (2011). Cannabidiol reduces the anxiety induced by simulated public speaking in treatment-naïve social phobia patients. Neuropsychopharmacology, 36:1219–1226. PubMed 21307846

Human trial

Blunts some acute effects of THC in the lab

Pre-treatment with pure CBD reduced THC-induced paranoia and memory impairment. Done with isolated compounds at set doses. It does NOT mean the CBD in a real product cancels the high.Englund A, Morrison PD, Nottage J, et al. (2013). Cannabidiol inhibits THC-elicited paranoid symptoms and hippocampal-dependent memory impairment. Journal of Psychopharmacology, 27:19–27. PubMed 23042808

Human study

Interacts with other medications (CYP450)

CBD raises the active metabolite of clobazam (N-desmethylclobazam), a documented, clinically relevant drug interaction. CBD is not consequence-free, especially for someone taking other medications.Klein P, et al. (per Epidiolex clinical program) (2019). Drug-drug interactions and pharmacodynamics of concomitant clobazam and cannabidiol or stiripentol in refractory seizures. Epilepsy & Behavior, 99:106459. PubMed 31519475

Human study

Raises liver enzymes when combined with valproate

In the pharmaceutical-CBD (Epidiolex) safety program, AST and ALT liver enzymes ran significantly higher in patients also taking valproate, with clinically significant elevations in a small number who normalized after stopping the combination. The same study confirmed CBD raises the active metabolite of clobazam. A real, documented monitoring caution, not a benefit.Gaston TE, Bebin EM, Cutter GR, et al. (2017). Interactions between cannabidiol and commonly used antiepileptic drugs. Epilepsia, 58:1586–1592. PubMed 28782097

Case report

Raised INR in a patient on warfarin (case report)

A single documented patient whose INR rose after CBD was added to warfarin; CBD appears to inhibit the CYP2C9 enzyme that clears warfarin. One case, not a trial, but it is why the honest advice is to monitor INR if someone on warfarin uses CBD.Grayson L, Vines B, Nichol K, et al. (2017). An interaction between warfarin and cannabidiol, a case report. Epilepsy & Behavior Case Reports, 9:10–11. PubMed 29387536

Human study

On its own, did not make people drowsy

Isolated CBN produced no drowsiness on its own and only slightly potentiated THC. The foundational human study, and it directly undercuts the "sedating" reputation.Karniol IG, Shirakawa I, Takahashi RN, et al. (1975). Effects of Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol and cannabinol in man. Pharmacology, 13:502–512. PubMed 1221432

Animal studies

Reduced muscle pain sensitivity in a rat model

Peripheral analgesia in a rat masticatory-muscle pain model, strongest combined with CBD. Rodent only.Wong H, Cairns BE. (2019). Cannabidiol, cannabinol and their combinations act as peripheral analgesics in a rat model of myofascial pain. Archives of Oral Biology, 104:33–39. PubMed 31158702

Human trial

Acutely eased self-reported anxiety in healthy adults

A single 20 mg dose reduced self-reported anxiety (and, early, stress) versus placebo, with no intoxication. First-in-human, small (n=34), healthy adults rather than a clinical group, and not yet replicated. Promising, not established.Cuttler C, Stueber A, Cooper ZD, et al. (2024). Acute effects of cannabigerol on anxiety, stress, and mood: a double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover, field trial. Scientific Reports, 14:16163. PubMed 39003387

Animal studies

Reduced colon inflammation in a mouse model of colitis

CBG reduced inflammation in chemically-induced mouse colitis. The widely-cited "CBG for IBD" study, but it is a mouse model, not evidence in people.Borrelli F, Fasolino I, Romano B, et al. (2013). Beneficial effect of the non-psychotropic plant cannabinoid cannabigerol on experimental inflammatory bowel disease. Biochemical Pharmacology, 85:1306–1316. PubMed 23415610

Human study

Is absorbed when taken orally (in people)

A pharmacokinetics pilot in which CBC was dosed within a CBD and THC oil, not in isolation, showing CBC reaches the bloodstream after oral dosing and was tolerated. It measured blood levels, not a health outcome. There is no human efficacy study for CBC.Peters EN, Yardley H, Harrison A, et al. (2022). Pharmacokinetics of cannabichromene in a medical cannabis product also containing cannabidiol and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol: a pilot study. European Journal of Clinical Pharmacology, 78:259–265. PubMed 34664109

Animal studies

Reduced inflammation-driven effects in rodent models (via non-CB1 targets)

Anti-inflammatory activity in mouse colitis, acting through TRPA1 rather than the classic cannabinoid receptors. Rodent only. Note a separate mouse study found CBC raised THC brain levels, an interaction to watch, not just synergy.Romano B, Borrelli F, Fasolino I, et al. (2013). The cannabinoid TRPA1 agonist cannabichromene inhibits nitric oxide production in macrophages and ameliorates murine colitis. British Journal of Pharmacology, 169:213–229. PubMed 23373571

Human trial

Modestly lowered fasting blood glucose in type-2 diabetes (pilot)

THCV (5 mg twice daily, 13 weeks) lowered fasting glucose and improved β-cell markers vs placebo. But it MISSED its primary endpoint (HDL), the THCV arm was tiny (~11–13 people), it has never been replicated, and it found NO effect on appetite or body weight. Non-psychoactive at this dose.Jadoon KA, Ratcliffe SH, Barrett DA, et al. (2016). Efficacy and Safety of Cannabidiol and Tetrahydrocannabivarin on Glycemic and Lipid Parameters in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel Group Pilot Study. Diabetes Care, 39:1777–1786. PubMed 27573936

Animal studies

Improved insulin sensitivity in obese mice, without weight loss

The mechanistic basis for the diabetes pilot. Notably the metabolic benefit came WITHOUT reducing food intake or body weight in these mice.Wargent ET, Zaibi MS, Silvestri C, et al. (2013). The cannabinoid Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV) ameliorates insulin sensitivity in two mouse models of obesity. Nutrition & Diabetes, 3:e68. PubMed 23712280

Animal studies

Acts differently at low vs high dose (not simply "non-psychoactive")

THCV blocks CB1 at low doses (so it is non-intoxicating there, and can even blunt THC) but can act as a CB1 agonist at higher doses. "Always non-psychoactive" is an overstatement. It is dose-dependent, and no human intoxication threshold has been defined.Pertwee RG, Thomas A, Stevenson LA, et al. (2007). The psychoactive plant cannabinoid Δ9-THC is antagonized by Δ8- and Δ9-THCV in mice in vivo. British Journal of Pharmacology, 150:586–594. PubMed 17245367